King Arthur: Legend and History
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The Historical Arthur
The historical basis for King Arthur has been long debated by scholars. One school of thought, citing entries in the Historia Brittonum (History of the Britons) and Annales Cambriae (Welsh Annals), saw Arthur as a genuine historical figure, a Romano-British leader who fought against the invading Anglo-Saxons sometime in the late 5th to early 6th century. The Historia Brittonum, a 9th-century Latin historical compilation attributed in some late manuscripts to a Welsh cleric called Nennius, contains the first datable mention of King Arthur, listing twelve battles that Arthur fought. These culminate in the Battle of Badon, where he is said to have single-handedly killed 960 men. Recent studies question the reliability of the Historia Brittonum. Archaeological evidence in the Low Countries and what was to become England shows early Anglo-Saxon migration to Great Britain reversed between 500 and 550, which concurs with Frankish chronicles. John Davies notes this as consistent with the British victory at Badon Hill, attributed to Arthur by Nennius. The monks of Glastonbury are also said to have discovered the grave of Arthur in 1180. The other text that seems to support the case for Arthur's historical existence is the 10th-century Annales Cambriae, which also links Arthur with the Battle of Badon. The Annales date this battle to 516–518, and also mention the Battle of Camlann, in which Arthur and Medraut (Mordred) were both killed, dated to 537–539. These details have often been used to bolster confidence in the Historia's account and to confirm that Arthur really did fight at Badon. Problems have been identified, however, with using this source to support the Historia Brittonum's account. The latest research shows that the Annales Cambriae was based on a chronicle begun in the late 8th century in Wales. Additionally, the complex textual history of the Annales Cambriae precludes any certainty that the Arthurian annals were added to it even that early. They were more likely added at some point in the 10th century and may never have existed in any earlier set of annals. The Badon entry is probably derived from the Historia Brittonum. This lack of convincing early evidence is the reason many recent historians exclude Arthur from their accounts of sub-Roman Britain. In the view of historian Thomas Charles-Edwards, "At this stage of the inquiry, one can only say that there may well have been an historical Arthur [but ...] the historian can as yet say nothing of value about him". These modern admissions of ignorance are a relatively recent trend; earlier generations of historians were less skeptical. The historian John Morris made the putative reign of Arthur the organizing principle of his history of sub-Roman Britain and Ireland, The Age of Arthur (1973). Even so, he found little to say about a historical Arthur. Partly in reaction to such theories, another school of thought emerged which argued that Arthur had no historical existence at all. Morris's Age of Arthur prompted the archaeologist Nowell Myres to observe that "no figure on the borderline of history and mythology has wasted more of the historian's time". Gildas's 6th-century polemic De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae (On the Ruin and Conquest of Britain), written within living memory of Badon, mentions the battle but does not mention Arthur. Arthur is not mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle or named in any surviving manuscript written between 400 and 820. He is absent from Bede's early 8th-century Ecclesiastical History of the English People, another major early source for post-Roman history that mentions Badon. The historian David Dumville wrote: "I think we can dispose of him [Arthur] quite briefly. He owes his place in our history books to a 'no smoke without fire' school of thought ... The fact of the matter is that there is no historical evidence about Arthur; we must reject him from our histories and, above all, from the titles of our books." Some scholars argue that Arthur was originally a fictional hero of folklore—or even a half-forgotten Celtic deity—who became credited with real deeds in the distant past. They cite parallels with figures such as the Kentish Hengist and Horsa, who may be totemic horse-gods that later became historicised. Bede ascribed to these legendary figures a historical role in the 5th-century Anglo-Saxon conquest of eastern Britain. It is not even certain that Arthur was considered a king in the early texts. Neither the Historia nor the Annales calls him "rex": the former calls him instead "dux bellorum" (leader of wars) and "miles" (soldier). Details of Arthur's story are mainly composed of Welsh mythology, English folklore, and literary invention, and most historians of the period do not think that he was a historical figure. Because historical documents for the post-Roman period are scarce, a definitive answer to the question of Arthur's historical existence is unlikely. Sites and places have been identified as "Arthurian" since the 12th century, but archaeology can confidently reveal names only through inscriptions found in secure contexts. The so-called "Arthur stone", discovered in 1998 among the ruins at Tintagel Castle in Cornwall in securely dated 6th-century contexts, created a brief stir but proved irrelevant. Other inscriptional evidence for Arthur, including the Glastonbury cross, is tainted with the suggestion of forgery. Andrew Breeze has recently argued that Arthur was historical, and claimed to have identified the locations of his battles as well as the place and date of his death (in the context of the extreme weather events of 535–536), but his conclusions are disputed. Other scholars have questioned his findings, which they consider are based on coincidental resemblances between place names. Nicholas Higham comments that it is difficult to justify identifying Arthur as the leader in northern battles listed in the Historia Brittonum while rejecting the implication in the same work that they were fought against Anglo-Saxons and that there is no textual justification for separating Badon from the other battles. Several historical figures have been proposed as the basis for Arthur, ranging from Lucius Artorius Castus, a Roman officer who served in Britain in the 2nd or 3rd century, to sub-Roman British rulers such as Riotamus, Ambrosius Aurelianus, and the Welsh kings Owain Ddantgwyn, Enniaun Girt, and Athrwys ap Meurig. However, no convincing evidence for these identifications has emerged.
ARTHURIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY: https://mason.gmu.edu/~rutledge/classes/arthurbibl.html
See: Smithsonian, Expedition, EBSCO, Britannica, Wikipedia
1. The historical basis for King Arthur has been long debated by scholars. One school of thought cites entries in the Historia Brittonum and Annales Cambriae (Welsh Annals). Both works saw Arthur as a genuine historical figure, a Romano-British leader who fought against the invading Anglo-Saxons sometime in the late 5th to early 6th century.
2. The Historia Brittonum--a 9th-century Latin historical compilation attributed to a Welsh cleric named Nennius--contains the first datable mention of King Arthur, listing twelve battles that Arthur fought. These culminate in the Battle of Badon, where he is said to have single-handedly killed 960 men. Recent archaeological evidence shows that early Anglo-Saxon migration to Great Britain reversed between 500 and 550, which is consistent with the British victory at Badon Hill.
3. The other text that seems to support the case for Arthur's historical existence is the 10th-century Annales Cambriae (The Welsh Chronicles), which also links Arthur with the Battle of Badon. However, the latest research shows that the Chronicles is based on writings begun in the late 8th century. Simply put, both the Annales Cambriae and the Historia Brittonum were written down at least 200 or more years after Arthur’s supposed reign.
4. This lack of convincing early evidence is the reason many recent historians exclude Arthur from their accounts of sub-Roman Britain. In the view of historian Thomas Charles-Edwards, "at this stage of the enquiry, one can only say that there may well have been an historical Arthur [but ...] the historian can as yet say nothing of value about him.” These modern admissions of ignorance are a relatively recent trend; earlier generations of historians were less skeptical. For example, the historian John Morris in his book The Age of Arthur (1973) made his belief in the reign of an historical Arthur the focus of his history of sub- Roman Britain and Ireland. [The term sub-Roman means the period following the Roman occupation but before the Anglo-Saxon settlements, between the 5th and 6th centuries C.E.]
5. Partly in reaction to such theories, another school of thought emerged which argued that Arthur had no historical existence at all. Archaeologist Nowell Myres observes that "no figure on the borderline of history and mythology has wasted more of the historian's time". He cites as “proof” Gildas's 6th-century book On the Ruin and Conquest of Britain, written within living memory of Badon, which mentions the battle /but/ does not mention Arthur. Further, Arthur is not mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle or named in any surviving manuscript of that document written between 400 and 820. He is also absent from Bede's early-8th-century Ecclesiastical History of the English People, which is another major early source for post-Roman history. The historian David Dumville wrote bluntly: "I think we can dispose of [Arthur] quite briefly...there is no historical evidence about Arthur; we must reject him from our histories and, above all, from the titles of our books."
6. Some scholars argue that Arthur was originally a fictional hero of folklore—or even a half-forgotten Celtic deity—who later became credited with actual, real deeds in the distant past. And the early texts where he does appear, he's never actually called King. For example, in the Historia Brittonum he’s simply called "dux bellorum" (leader of wars) and "miles" (soldier).
7. Details of Arthur's story are mainly composed of Welsh mythology, English folklore and literary invention, and most historians now do not think that he was a historical figure. Simply put, because historical documents for the post-Roman period are scarce, a definitive answer to the question of Arthur's historical existence is unlikely.
8. Further, geographical sites that have been identified as "Arthurian" since the 12th century, are now considered questionable. For example, the so-called "Arthur stone"--discovered in 1998 among the ruins at Tintagel Castle in Cornwall--was dated to the 6th century of the Common Era, but the inscriptions proved to be problematic at best. Other inscriptional evidence for Arthur, including the now lost Glastonbury cross, is now believed to have been a forgery.
9. Andrew Breeze has recently argued that Arthur was historical. Breeze claims to have identified the locations of his battles as well as the place and date of his death (in the context of the extreme weather events of 535–536), but his conclusions are disputed. Meanwhile, other scholars have questioned Breeze’s findings. Nicholas Higham comments that it is difficult to justify identifying Arthur as the leader in northern battles listed in the Historia Brittonum. It is difficult to prove they were fought against Anglo-Saxons, and that there is no textual justification for separating Badon from the other battles.
10. Several historical figures have been proposed as the basis for Arthur, ranging from Lucius Artorius Castus, a Roman officer who served in Britain in the 2nd or 3rd century, to sub-Roman British rulers such as Riotamus, Ambrosius Aurelianus, and the Welsh kings Owain Ddantgwyn [O-WAIN D-DAG-WHEN], Enniaun Girt [En-wan Girt], and Athrwys ap Meurig [ATH-RAYS ap MURE-IG]. However, no convincing evidence for these identifications has emerged.
2. The Historia Brittonum--a 9th-century Latin historical compilation attributed to a Welsh cleric named Nennius--contains the first datable mention of King Arthur, listing twelve battles that Arthur fought. These culminate in the Battle of Badon, where he is said to have single-handedly killed 960 men. Recent archaeological evidence shows that early Anglo-Saxon migration to Great Britain reversed between 500 and 550, which is consistent with the British victory at Badon Hill.
3. The other text that seems to support the case for Arthur's historical existence is the 10th-century Annales Cambriae (The Welsh Chronicles), which also links Arthur with the Battle of Badon. However, the latest research shows that the Chronicles is based on writings begun in the late 8th century. Simply put, both the Annales Cambriae and the Historia Brittonum were written down at least 200 or more years after Arthur’s supposed reign.
4. This lack of convincing early evidence is the reason many recent historians exclude Arthur from their accounts of sub-Roman Britain. In the view of historian Thomas Charles-Edwards, "at this stage of the enquiry, one can only say that there may well have been an historical Arthur [but ...] the historian can as yet say nothing of value about him.” These modern admissions of ignorance are a relatively recent trend; earlier generations of historians were less skeptical. For example, the historian John Morris in his book The Age of Arthur (1973) made his belief in the reign of an historical Arthur the focus of his history of sub- Roman Britain and Ireland. [The term sub-Roman means the period following the Roman occupation but before the Anglo-Saxon settlements, between the 5th and 6th centuries C.E.]
5. Partly in reaction to such theories, another school of thought emerged which argued that Arthur had no historical existence at all. Archaeologist Nowell Myres observes that "no figure on the borderline of history and mythology has wasted more of the historian's time". He cites as “proof” Gildas's 6th-century book On the Ruin and Conquest of Britain, written within living memory of Badon, which mentions the battle /but/ does not mention Arthur. Further, Arthur is not mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle or named in any surviving manuscript of that document written between 400 and 820. He is also absent from Bede's early-8th-century Ecclesiastical History of the English People, which is another major early source for post-Roman history. The historian David Dumville wrote bluntly: "I think we can dispose of [Arthur] quite briefly...there is no historical evidence about Arthur; we must reject him from our histories and, above all, from the titles of our books."
6. Some scholars argue that Arthur was originally a fictional hero of folklore—or even a half-forgotten Celtic deity—who later became credited with actual, real deeds in the distant past. And the early texts where he does appear, he's never actually called King. For example, in the Historia Brittonum he’s simply called "dux bellorum" (leader of wars) and "miles" (soldier).
7. Details of Arthur's story are mainly composed of Welsh mythology, English folklore and literary invention, and most historians now do not think that he was a historical figure. Simply put, because historical documents for the post-Roman period are scarce, a definitive answer to the question of Arthur's historical existence is unlikely.
8. Further, geographical sites that have been identified as "Arthurian" since the 12th century, are now considered questionable. For example, the so-called "Arthur stone"--discovered in 1998 among the ruins at Tintagel Castle in Cornwall--was dated to the 6th century of the Common Era, but the inscriptions proved to be problematic at best. Other inscriptional evidence for Arthur, including the now lost Glastonbury cross, is now believed to have been a forgery.
9. Andrew Breeze has recently argued that Arthur was historical. Breeze claims to have identified the locations of his battles as well as the place and date of his death (in the context of the extreme weather events of 535–536), but his conclusions are disputed. Meanwhile, other scholars have questioned Breeze’s findings. Nicholas Higham comments that it is difficult to justify identifying Arthur as the leader in northern battles listed in the Historia Brittonum. It is difficult to prove they were fought against Anglo-Saxons, and that there is no textual justification for separating Badon from the other battles.
10. Several historical figures have been proposed as the basis for Arthur, ranging from Lucius Artorius Castus, a Roman officer who served in Britain in the 2nd or 3rd century, to sub-Roman British rulers such as Riotamus, Ambrosius Aurelianus, and the Welsh kings Owain Ddantgwyn [O-WAIN D-DAG-WHEN], Enniaun Girt [En-wan Girt], and Athrwys ap Meurig [ATH-RAYS ap MURE-IG]. However, no convincing evidence for these identifications has emerged.
Web Resources
Print:
THE MATTER OF BRITAIN: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matter_of_BritainOVERVIEW: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_ArthurOVERVIEW: https://www.britannica.com/topic/King-ArthurOVERVIEW (with video): https://www.britannica.com/topic/King-ArthurOVERVIEW (with video): https://www.worldhistory.org/King_Arthur/OVERVIEW (Arthurian website): https://kingarthursknights.com/ARTHURIAN CHARACTERS (With links to separate biographies): https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Arthurian_charactersNEWLY DISCOVERED MANUSCRIPT: https://www.nytimes.com/2025/03/28/world/europe/merlin-manuscript-cambridge.html?
MERLIN: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Merlin-legendary-magicianMERLIN: https://www.ancient-origins.net/myths-legends-europe/legendary-origins-merlin-magician-002627
MERLIN: https://blogs.bl.uk/digitisedmanuscripts/2021/11/merlin-the-magician.html
LADY OF THE LAKE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_of_the_LakeMORGANA: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgan_le_FayMORGANA: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Morgan-le-Fay
GUINEVERE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GuinevereGUINEVERE: https://www.worldhistory.org/Guinevere/
LANCELOT: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LancelotMORDRED: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MordredPERCIVAL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PercivalGAWAIN: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gawain
Video:
HISTORY OF ARTHURIAN LEGEND: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gRgFsZ_kRAUTRUTH OF ARTHURIAN LEGENDS (TED Talk): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RBsY88Lir-ALIFE AND LEGEND (Bio-graphics): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7fuVAnAZXHUSHORT OVERVIEW (from UNEXPLAINED): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BRbFsUcDElIOVERVIEW (50 minute documentary): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j1VO-MzfBYAMERLIN: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j1VO-MzfBYALADY OF THE LAKE: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KdOYAcgtm30MORGANA: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qkZHLgydExgGUINEVERE: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0ywxJcW0ewMLANCELOT: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TP3BydQJPJ8MORDRED: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iT20LVUSzQ0PERCIVAL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XvlyUNsaqJMGAWAIN: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PhaOeBF9QI4
Some Leading Characters
See: Smithsonian, Expedition, PBS, BBC, History , Britannica, Wikipedia
1. King Arthur: Even when later works put him “off-stage”, his influence stretches across the story. Especially in early works, he’s known for his bravery, wisdom, and leadership. He’s depicted as a powerful king who defeated the Saxons and established a vast empire.
2. Merlin is known primarily for being a wizard, with several other main roles. He’s usually depicted as a composite of historic and legendary figures, born of a mortal woman and sired by a male demon called an incubus. He’s known for prophecy and shapeshifting, who engineers the birth of King Arthur and serves as Arthur’s chief advisor until Arthur’s disappearance or death.
3. Guinevere is often the primary female character in Arthurian tales. She’s the queen of Great Britain, wife of Arthur, and the prominent figure in the love affair with Lancelot. As a result of that affair, she’s depicted as everything from a villainous traitor to a noble lady. Her relationship with Lancelot is central to many tales and assumes a very active role in 19th century and modern adaptations her life’s story.
4. Lancelot du Lac is one of the greatest Knights of the Round Table. He’s depicted as King Arthur’s close companion and personal champion of Queen Guinevere. He becomes central to the Arthurian romance tradition as a hero of many battles, quests, and tournaments who also has a tragic love affair with Guinevere, which causes a civil war that leads to the downfall of Arthur’s kingdom.
5. Morgan Le Fay is a complex character in the Arthurian legends who undergoes many psychological changes throughout different texts. She’s originally depicted as the ruler of Avalon and a healer, but later becomes more of an antagonistic figure towards King Arthur and is associated with paganism and female sexuality. Morgan Le Fay’s duality and her ability to use magic have made her a popular subject in contemporary texts, where she is sometimes portrayed as good, evil, or somewhere in between.
6. Mordred is another complex character in the Arthurian legend who has been portrayed as both a knight and a traitor. He is usually depicted as the villainous son of King Arthur and Morgause who desires to claim the throne and is eager to bring about the end of Camelot. Mordred is often portrayed as being in love with Queen Guinevere and fighting Arthur for both the throne /and/ her heart. Depending on the interpretation, either Arthur kills Mordred /or/ Mordred kills Arthur--or both-- at the Battle of Camlann. He is most widely considered a villain and is even included in the lowest circle of Hell for traitors in Dante Alighieri’s “Inferno.”
7. Sir Gawain is a legendary knight who is best known from the 14th century romantic epic poem “Sir Gawain and the Green Knight.” He is the half-brother of Mordred and the son of Morgause and King Lot and is often depicted as a model of chivalry and goodness. In one the greatest of the Arthurian Romances--“Sir Gawain and the Green Knight” by the Pearl Poet--Gawain defends King Arthur against a mysterious knight who challenges the king to a strange game. Gawain accepts the challenge in Arthur’s name and beheads the Green Knight, only to go on a quest to find him a year later and prove his greatness as an honorable knight.
8. Elaine of Astolat is a character in the Arthurian legend who is known for her unrequited love for Lancelot. Her story is told in Sir Thomas Malory’s “Le Morte d’Arthur” and Alfred Tennyson’s ballad “The Lady of Shalott.” Elaine nurses Lancelot back to health after he is wounded in a tournament, but he leaves her to return to Guinevere. Elaine dies of a broken heart, and her image as a woman whose love goes unrequited has inspired many paintings and works of art.
9. Morgause is the sister of Morgan Le Fay. Originally called Anna in Geoffrey of Monmouth’s History of the Kings of Britain, Morgause’s character was fleshed out in Thomas Malory’s “Le Morte d’Arthur.” In his version, she marries King Lot of Orkney and has four sons with him, all of whom serve Arthur as Knights of the Round Table. However, she is also the mother of Mordred through an incestuous affair with King Arthur, and her unlucky affairs lead to her death.
10. Galahad is a knight known for being the noblest knight chosen by God to discover the Holy Grail. He is the son of Lancelot and is famous for his purity, which is linked to his success in finding the Holy Grail. Galahad’s reputation as a sinless knight is a stark contrast to his father Lancelot’s reputation for extramarital affairs, and Galhad’s virginity has become an important aspect of his story in the Arthurian legend.
11. The Lady of the Lake, also known as Viviane or Nimuë, is a powerful and influential figure in Arthurian legends. She resides in a castle beneath the lake that surrounds Avalon and is responsible for gifting Arthur with Excalibur, /bringing him to Avalon to heal him, /and/ raising Lancelot into adulthood. Her relationship with Merlin is also a subject of debate, with some stories depicting her as his lover and teacher of magic, while others show her as the one who imprisons him. The Lady of the Lake’s morally ambiguous character is typical of many female characters in Arthurian legend.
12. Tristan--a friend of Lancelot and one of the Knights of the Round Table--is the legendary hero of the Tristan and Iseult story, first recorded in the 12th century. In it he falls in love with the Irish princess Iseult while escorting her to marry King Mark of Cornwall, leading to an adulterous relationship and eventual banishment and death.
13. Iseult is a legendary Irish princess who is the main character in several Arthurian romances and Wagner’s trailblazing opera Tristan und Isolde. --click-- She’s most widely-known for her love affair with Tristan after they accidentally drink a love potion /and/ for their tragic end when Tristan is killed by King Mark and she dies of a broken heart--or dies in Tristan’s final embrace.
14. There are several Biblical characters who are part of Arthurian romances. Joseph of Arimathea--who is said to have taken the body of Jesus after the crucifixion and given him a proper burial--is a figure in several of the legends, and is said to have brought the Holy Grail to Britain.
15. Uther Pendragon is the father of King Arthur and the previous king of Britain. He is often depicted as a brave and just ruler who paved the way for his son’s rule.
16. Igraine is the mother of King Arthur and the wife of King Uther Pendragon. She was originally married to King Gorlois before the King was killed in battle through the magic of Merlin. Her daughters Morgause, Elaine, and Morgan Le Fay were a result of that prior marriage.
2. Merlin is known primarily for being a wizard, with several other main roles. He’s usually depicted as a composite of historic and legendary figures, born of a mortal woman and sired by a male demon called an incubus. He’s known for prophecy and shapeshifting, who engineers the birth of King Arthur and serves as Arthur’s chief advisor until Arthur’s disappearance or death.
3. Guinevere is often the primary female character in Arthurian tales. She’s the queen of Great Britain, wife of Arthur, and the prominent figure in the love affair with Lancelot. As a result of that affair, she’s depicted as everything from a villainous traitor to a noble lady. Her relationship with Lancelot is central to many tales and assumes a very active role in 19th century and modern adaptations her life’s story.
4. Lancelot du Lac is one of the greatest Knights of the Round Table. He’s depicted as King Arthur’s close companion and personal champion of Queen Guinevere. He becomes central to the Arthurian romance tradition as a hero of many battles, quests, and tournaments who also has a tragic love affair with Guinevere, which causes a civil war that leads to the downfall of Arthur’s kingdom.
5. Morgan Le Fay is a complex character in the Arthurian legends who undergoes many psychological changes throughout different texts. She’s originally depicted as the ruler of Avalon and a healer, but later becomes more of an antagonistic figure towards King Arthur and is associated with paganism and female sexuality. Morgan Le Fay’s duality and her ability to use magic have made her a popular subject in contemporary texts, where she is sometimes portrayed as good, evil, or somewhere in between.
6. Mordred is another complex character in the Arthurian legend who has been portrayed as both a knight and a traitor. He is usually depicted as the villainous son of King Arthur and Morgause who desires to claim the throne and is eager to bring about the end of Camelot. Mordred is often portrayed as being in love with Queen Guinevere and fighting Arthur for both the throne /and/ her heart. Depending on the interpretation, either Arthur kills Mordred /or/ Mordred kills Arthur--or both-- at the Battle of Camlann. He is most widely considered a villain and is even included in the lowest circle of Hell for traitors in Dante Alighieri’s “Inferno.”
7. Sir Gawain is a legendary knight who is best known from the 14th century romantic epic poem “Sir Gawain and the Green Knight.” He is the half-brother of Mordred and the son of Morgause and King Lot and is often depicted as a model of chivalry and goodness. In one the greatest of the Arthurian Romances--“Sir Gawain and the Green Knight” by the Pearl Poet--Gawain defends King Arthur against a mysterious knight who challenges the king to a strange game. Gawain accepts the challenge in Arthur’s name and beheads the Green Knight, only to go on a quest to find him a year later and prove his greatness as an honorable knight.
8. Elaine of Astolat is a character in the Arthurian legend who is known for her unrequited love for Lancelot. Her story is told in Sir Thomas Malory’s “Le Morte d’Arthur” and Alfred Tennyson’s ballad “The Lady of Shalott.” Elaine nurses Lancelot back to health after he is wounded in a tournament, but he leaves her to return to Guinevere. Elaine dies of a broken heart, and her image as a woman whose love goes unrequited has inspired many paintings and works of art.
9. Morgause is the sister of Morgan Le Fay. Originally called Anna in Geoffrey of Monmouth’s History of the Kings of Britain, Morgause’s character was fleshed out in Thomas Malory’s “Le Morte d’Arthur.” In his version, she marries King Lot of Orkney and has four sons with him, all of whom serve Arthur as Knights of the Round Table. However, she is also the mother of Mordred through an incestuous affair with King Arthur, and her unlucky affairs lead to her death.
10. Galahad is a knight known for being the noblest knight chosen by God to discover the Holy Grail. He is the son of Lancelot and is famous for his purity, which is linked to his success in finding the Holy Grail. Galahad’s reputation as a sinless knight is a stark contrast to his father Lancelot’s reputation for extramarital affairs, and Galhad’s virginity has become an important aspect of his story in the Arthurian legend.
11. The Lady of the Lake, also known as Viviane or Nimuë, is a powerful and influential figure in Arthurian legends. She resides in a castle beneath the lake that surrounds Avalon and is responsible for gifting Arthur with Excalibur, /bringing him to Avalon to heal him, /and/ raising Lancelot into adulthood. Her relationship with Merlin is also a subject of debate, with some stories depicting her as his lover and teacher of magic, while others show her as the one who imprisons him. The Lady of the Lake’s morally ambiguous character is typical of many female characters in Arthurian legend.
12. Tristan--a friend of Lancelot and one of the Knights of the Round Table--is the legendary hero of the Tristan and Iseult story, first recorded in the 12th century. In it he falls in love with the Irish princess Iseult while escorting her to marry King Mark of Cornwall, leading to an adulterous relationship and eventual banishment and death.
13. Iseult is a legendary Irish princess who is the main character in several Arthurian romances and Wagner’s trailblazing opera Tristan und Isolde. --click-- She’s most widely-known for her love affair with Tristan after they accidentally drink a love potion /and/ for their tragic end when Tristan is killed by King Mark and she dies of a broken heart--or dies in Tristan’s final embrace.
14. There are several Biblical characters who are part of Arthurian romances. Joseph of Arimathea--who is said to have taken the body of Jesus after the crucifixion and given him a proper burial--is a figure in several of the legends, and is said to have brought the Holy Grail to Britain.
15. Uther Pendragon is the father of King Arthur and the previous king of Britain. He is often depicted as a brave and just ruler who paved the way for his son’s rule.
16. Igraine is the mother of King Arthur and the wife of King Uther Pendragon. She was originally married to King Gorlois before the King was killed in battle through the magic of Merlin. Her daughters Morgause, Elaine, and Morgan Le Fay were a result of that prior marriage.
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Arthur's Name
Even the very name of Arthur has been a cause of controversy. Is it Welsh? Is it actually from a Roman name? / As you’ll see, even his name is a source of scholarly fights. The most widely accepted etymology derives Arthur’s name from the Roman family name Artorius. Linguist Stephan Zimmer suggests Artorius possibly had a Celtic origin, being a Latinization of a hypothetical name Artorījos, in turn derived from an older patronym Arto-rīg-ios, meaning "son of the bear/warrior-king". Further, arto-rīg, "bear/warrior-king", is also the source of the Old Irish personal name Artrí. Interestingly, King Arthur's name only appears as Arthur or Arturus in early Latin Arthurian texts, never as Artōrius. However, this may not say anything about the origin of the name Arthur, as Artōrius would regularly become Art(h)ur when borrowed into Welsh. Another commonly proposed derivation of Arthur comes from the Welsh arth "bear" + (g)wr "man" (earlier Arto-uiros in Brittonic) is not accepted by modern scholars for phonological (speech sounds) and orthographic (spelling) reasons. An alternative theory, which has gained limited acceptance among professional scholars, derives the name Arthur from Arcturus, the brightest star in the constellation Boötes, near Ursa Major or the Great Bear. Classical Latin Arcturus would also have become Art(h)ur when borrowed into Welsh, and its brightness and position in the sky led people to regard it as the "guardian of the bear” and the "leader" of the other stars in Boötes. All of this is important to scholars, but it shows us laypersons that even the very name of Arthur is freighted with controversy.
See: https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1068/the-historical-king-arthur/See: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Arthur#Name See: https://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/the-life-and-times-of-king-arthur/
See: https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1068/the-historical-king-arthur/See: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Arthur#Name See: https://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/the-life-and-times-of-king-arthur/
The Lady of the Lake
Merlin
Morgana
Arthurian Myth and Legend
Arthur, a Celtic king born of deceit and adultery, grew to become one of the most famous rulers of Britain. He was a warrior, a knight, and a king who killed giants, witches, and monsters and led a band of heroes on many daring adventures. He is known for his Knights of the Round Table and for uniting the peoples of his land. Even though his end was tragic, he is still known and celebrated all over the world today. His story is painted on the halls of the British Parliament. Arthur's story begins with Uther Pendragon, his father. Pendragon is smitten by Igraine, the wife of the Duke of Cornwall. Disguising himself as Igraine's husband he sneaks into her bed and she conceives Arthur. Merlin the wizard raises Arthur away from his parents. It is Merlin who had designed for Arthur's father Uther a great Round Table at which 150 knights could sit. Upon Uther's death, the knights do not know who should take his place. Merlin tells them that whoever could draw a mysterious sword out of a stone should be the next king. Many try but all fail. Then one day Arthur, who is attending to his foster brother Sir Kay, is sent to find a sword to replace his brother's broken one. He comes upon the magical sword Excalibur in the stone and, not knowing the prophecy, draws it out. Thus, he is proclaimed the new king. Arthur unites Britain and drives off the invading Saxons. He becomes a benevolent and well-loved king. His reign is known for its heroic deeds and chivalric romance. In fact, the name of his castle, Camelot, has come to signify a golden age. The greatest quest of Arthur and his Knights is the quest for the mythical Holy Grail, the cup from which Jesus drank at the Last Supper. While King Arthur is never to find the Holy Grail himself, his knight Sir Galahad does because of his purity of heart. King Arthur marries Guinevere, daughter of the King of Scotland. Merlin tries to warn him against the marriage because Guinevere is in love with Sir Lancelot, one of Arthur's knights. When Arthur discovers that his wife and Sir Lancelot are having an affair, Sir Lancelot flees for France and Arthur pursues him. In his absence, Arthur's nephew Mordred seizes power. Arthur returns to Britain and a terrible battle ensues, during which most of his knights die and he is grievously wounded. He has Excalibur thrown back into the lake and boards a boat for the magical Isle of Avalon. Here, he hopes to be cured of his wounds so that he might return to lead his people again. For this reason, Arthur is called "the once and future king."
LIST OF WORKS: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_based_on_Arthurian_legendsMATTER OF BRITAIN: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matter_of_BritainARTHURIAN CHARACTERS: https://mythbank.com/list-of-arthurian-characters-and-groups/ARTHURIAN CHARACTERS: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Arthurian_characters
Pre-Galfridian Sources
See: Smithsonian, Expedition, EBSCO, Britannica, Wikipedia
1. The familiar literary persona of Arthur began with Geoffrey of Monmouth's pseudo-historical Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain), written in the 1130s. The textual sources for Arthur are usually divided into those written before Geoffrey's Historia (known as pre-Galfridian texts, from the Latin form of Geoffrey, Galfridus) and those written afterwards, which are influenced by his book. These are called Galfridian, or post-Galfridian, texts.
2. So, when we talk about Pre-Galfridian texts, the earliest literary references to Arthur come from Welsh and Breton sources. Scholar Caitlin Green in her book Concepts of Arthur has identified three key strands to the portrayal of Arthur in this earliest material. The first is that he was a peerless warrior who functioned as the monster-hunting protector of Britain from all internal and external threats. Some of these are human threats, such as the Saxons he fights, but the majority are supernatural, including giant cat-monsters, destructive divine boars, dragons, dogheads, giants, and witches. The second is that the pre-Galfridian Arthur was a figure of folklore and localized magical wonder-tales, the leader of a band of superhuman heroes who live in the wilds of the landscape. The third and final strand is that the early Welsh Arthur had a close connection with the Welsh Otherworld, Annwn. On the one hand, he launches assaults on Otherworldly fortresses in search of treasure and frees their prisoners. On the other, his warband mentioned in the earliest sources includes former pagan gods, and his wife and his possessions are clearly Otherworldly in origin.
3. References to Arthur in the pre-Galfridian Welsh poetic tradition can be found in the collection of heroic death-songs known as Y Gododdin attributed to the 6th-century poet Aneirin. And several poems attributed to Taliesin, a poet said to have lived in the 6th century, also refer to Arthur. They include "The Chair of the Prince", which refers to Arthur the Blessed; "The Spoils of Annwn,” which recounts an expedition of Arthur to the Otherworld; and "The Elegy of Uther Pendragon,” which refers to Arthur's valor and the relationship Arthur had with his father Uther.
4. Other early Welsh Arthurian texts include a poem found in the Black Book of Carmarthen, The Welsh prose tale Culhwch and Olwen--dated around 1100 CE-- and in what are called the Welsh Triads. In all of these, Arthur is said to be "Chief of the Lords of this Island", the overlord of Wales, Cornwall, and the North.
5. In addition to these pre-Galfridian Welsh poems and tales, starting in the 11th century, Arthur features in a number of well-known Lives of post-Roman saints. For example, according to the Life of Saint Gildas, written in the early 12th century, Arthur is said to have rescued his wife Gwen from the monastery at Glastonbury. In the Life of Saint Cadog, written around 1100, the saint gives protection to a man who killed three of Arthur's soldiers. And William of Malmesbury provides some of the first certain evidence for a belief that Arthur was not actually dead /and/ would at some point return, a theme that is often revisited in post-Galfridian folklore.
2. So, when we talk about Pre-Galfridian texts, the earliest literary references to Arthur come from Welsh and Breton sources. Scholar Caitlin Green in her book Concepts of Arthur has identified three key strands to the portrayal of Arthur in this earliest material. The first is that he was a peerless warrior who functioned as the monster-hunting protector of Britain from all internal and external threats. Some of these are human threats, such as the Saxons he fights, but the majority are supernatural, including giant cat-monsters, destructive divine boars, dragons, dogheads, giants, and witches. The second is that the pre-Galfridian Arthur was a figure of folklore and localized magical wonder-tales, the leader of a band of superhuman heroes who live in the wilds of the landscape. The third and final strand is that the early Welsh Arthur had a close connection with the Welsh Otherworld, Annwn. On the one hand, he launches assaults on Otherworldly fortresses in search of treasure and frees their prisoners. On the other, his warband mentioned in the earliest sources includes former pagan gods, and his wife and his possessions are clearly Otherworldly in origin.
3. References to Arthur in the pre-Galfridian Welsh poetic tradition can be found in the collection of heroic death-songs known as Y Gododdin attributed to the 6th-century poet Aneirin. And several poems attributed to Taliesin, a poet said to have lived in the 6th century, also refer to Arthur. They include "The Chair of the Prince", which refers to Arthur the Blessed; "The Spoils of Annwn,” which recounts an expedition of Arthur to the Otherworld; and "The Elegy of Uther Pendragon,” which refers to Arthur's valor and the relationship Arthur had with his father Uther.
4. Other early Welsh Arthurian texts include a poem found in the Black Book of Carmarthen, The Welsh prose tale Culhwch and Olwen--dated around 1100 CE-- and in what are called the Welsh Triads. In all of these, Arthur is said to be "Chief of the Lords of this Island", the overlord of Wales, Cornwall, and the North.
5. In addition to these pre-Galfridian Welsh poems and tales, starting in the 11th century, Arthur features in a number of well-known Lives of post-Roman saints. For example, according to the Life of Saint Gildas, written in the early 12th century, Arthur is said to have rescued his wife Gwen from the monastery at Glastonbury. In the Life of Saint Cadog, written around 1100, the saint gives protection to a man who killed three of Arthur's soldiers. And William of Malmesbury provides some of the first certain evidence for a belief that Arthur was not actually dead /and/ would at some point return, a theme that is often revisited in post-Galfridian folklore.
Galfridian and Post-Galfridian Sources
See: Smithsonian, Expedition, EBSCO, Britannica, Wikipedia
1. Geoffrey of Monmouth’s History of the Kings of England, known in Latin as Historia Regum Britanniae, was completed around 1138. It contains the first narrative account of Arthur's life. This work is an imaginative and fanciful account of British kings from the legendary Trojan exile Brutus up to the 7th-century Welsh king Cadwallader.
2. Geoffrey says that Arthur was a descendant of Constantine the Great. He writes about Arthur's father Uther Pendragon, his magician advisor Merlin, and the story of Arthur's conception, in which Uther, disguised as his enemy Gorlois by Merlin's magic, sleeps with Gorlois's wife Igraine at Castle Tintagel, and she conceives Arthur. On Uther's death, the fifteen-year-old Arthur succeeds him as King of Britain and fights a series of battles, culminating in the Battle of Bath where he defeats the Anglo-Saxons. He then defeats the Picts and Scots before creating an Arthurian empire through his conquests of Ireland, Iceland, and the Orkney Islands. After twelve years of peace, Arthur sets out to expand his empire once more, taking control of Norway, Denmark, and Gaul. Gaul is still held by the Roman Empire when it is conquered, and Arthur's victory leads to further confrontations with Rome.
3. Arthur and his warriors, including Kay, Bedivere, and Gawain, defeat the Roman emperor Lucius Tiberius in Gaul but, as he prepares to march on Rome, Arthur hears that his nephew Mordred—whom he had left in charge of Britain—has married his wife Guinevere and seized the throne. Arthur returns to Britain and defeats and kills Mordred on the river Camblam in Cornwall, but he himself is mortally wounded. He hands the crown to his kinsman Constantine and is taken to the isle of Avalon to be healed of his wounds, never to be seen again.
4. Now, how much of this narrative was Geoffrey's own invention is open to debate. He seems to have borrowed the list of Arthur's twelve battles against the Saxons found in the 9th-century Historia Brittonum, along with the idea that Arthur was still alive after the battle of Camlann from the Annales Cambriae. And Arthur's status as the king of all Britain seems to have been taken from pre-Galfridian traditions of Wales. Finally, Geoffrey borrowed many of the names for Arthur's possessions (like Excalibur), close family (like Uther), and companions (like Gawain) from the pre-Galfridian Welsh tradition. However, while names, key events, and titles may have been borrowed, there have been relatively few modern attempts to challenge the notion that Geoffrey’s book is primarily his own creative work.
5. Well, whatever his sources may have been, the immense popularity of Geoffrey's History cannot be denied. Over 200 manuscript copies of Geoffrey's Latin work are known to have survived, as well as translations into other languages. As a result of this popularity, Geoffrey's book was enormously influential on the later medieval development of the Arthurian legend and the magical and wonderful adventures of Romance tales.
6. Romance is a genre, developing from the mid-14th century, which deals with love or heroic adventures both in prose and verse form. The plots are set in distant times and distant places, remote from everyday life. The supernatural element is present in many medieval romances. Further, chivalric romances are fantastic stories about marvel-filled adventures, often of a knight portrayed as having heroic qualities, who goes on a quest. Chivalric romances put the emphasis on love and courtly manners and are distinguished from other kinds of epic tales in which masculine military heroism predominates.
7. Indeed, the popularity of Geoffrey's Historia gave rise to a significant number of new Arthurian works in continental Europe during the 12th and 13th centuries, particularly in France. Perhaps the most significant effect of this great outpouring of new Arthurian story-telling was on the role of the king himself: much of this 12th-century and later Arthurian literature centers less on Arthur himself than on characters such as Lancelot and Guinevere, Percival, Galahad, Gawain, and Tristan and Iseult. Whereas Arthur is very much at the center of the pre-Galfridian material and Geoffrey's Historia itself, in the post-Galfridian romances he is often sidelined.
8. His character also alters significantly. In both the earliest materials and in Geoffrey, Arthur is a great and ferocious warrior, who laughs as he personally slaughters witches and giants and takes a leading role in all military campaigns, whereas in the continental romances he often becomes the "do-nothing king", whose "inactivity and acquiescence constituted a central flaw in his otherwise ideal society.” Arthur's role in these works is frequently that of a wise, dignified, even-tempered, somewhat bland, and occasionally feeble monarch. Nonetheless, whatever his faults and frailties may be in these romances, his prestige is never—or almost never—compromised by his personal weaknesses ... his authority and glory remain intact.
9. While Arthur and his retinue appear in some of the poems of Marie de France, it was the work of another French poet, Chrétien de Troyes, that had the greatest influence with regard to the development of Arthur's character and legend. Chrétien wrote five Arthurian romances between 1170 and 1190. Erec and Enide and Cligès are tales of courtly love with Arthur's court as their backdrop, demonstrating the shift away from the heroic world of the Welsh and Galfridian Arthur, while Yvain, the Knight of the Lion, features Yvain and Gawain in a supernatural adventure, with Arthur very much on the sidelines and weakened. However, the two most significant developments of the Arthurian legend are: Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart, which introduces Lancelot and his adulterous relationship with Arthur's queen Guinevere, extending and popularizing the recurring theme of Arthur as a cuckold, and Perceval, the Story of the Grail, which introduces the Holy Grail and the character of the Fisher King, with Arthur having a much reduced role.
10. Thus, Chrétien was absolutely instrumental in the development of the Arthurian legend and much of what came after him in terms of the portrayal of Arthur himself and his world. The Perceval poem, although unfinished, was particularly popular, with the quest for the Grail slowly replacing the prominence of Arthur himself in Arthurian legends. Similarly, Lancelot and his cuckolding of Arthur with Guinevere became one of the classic motifs of the Arthurian legend.
11. Chrétien's work even appears to feed back into Welsh Arthurian literature. Particularly significant in this development were the three great Welsh Arthurian romances, which are closely similar to those of Chrétien: Owain, or the Lady of the Fountain is related to Chrétien's Yvain; Geraint and Enid, to Erec and Enide; and Peredur son of Efrawg, to Perceval.
12. Up to around 1200, continental Arthurian romance was expressed primarily through poetry--but after this date the tales began to be told in prose. The most significant of these 13th-century prose romances was the Vulgate Cycle of the Holy Grail, a series of Middle French prose works written in the first half of the 13th century that continued the trend towards reducing the role played by Arthur, through the introduction of Galahad and an expansion of the role of Merlin. It also made Mordred the result of an incestuous relationship between Arthur and his sister Morgause, and established the role of Camelot as the center of Arthur’s court. This series of texts was quickly followed by another Cycle that included the Suite du Merlin that focused more on the quest for the Holy Grail.
13. The development of the medieval Arthurian cycle and the character of the "Arthur of romance" culminated in Le Morte d'Arthur, Thomas Malory's retelling of the entire legend in a single work in English in the late 15th century. Malory based his book on the various previous romance versions, in particular the Vulgate Cycle, and appears to have aimed at creating a comprehensive and authoritative collection of Arthurian stories. Le Morte D'Arthur was one of the earliest printed books in England, published by William Caxton in 1485. As a result, later Arthurian works --including modern versions--are derivative of Malory's.
2. Geoffrey says that Arthur was a descendant of Constantine the Great. He writes about Arthur's father Uther Pendragon, his magician advisor Merlin, and the story of Arthur's conception, in which Uther, disguised as his enemy Gorlois by Merlin's magic, sleeps with Gorlois's wife Igraine at Castle Tintagel, and she conceives Arthur. On Uther's death, the fifteen-year-old Arthur succeeds him as King of Britain and fights a series of battles, culminating in the Battle of Bath where he defeats the Anglo-Saxons. He then defeats the Picts and Scots before creating an Arthurian empire through his conquests of Ireland, Iceland, and the Orkney Islands. After twelve years of peace, Arthur sets out to expand his empire once more, taking control of Norway, Denmark, and Gaul. Gaul is still held by the Roman Empire when it is conquered, and Arthur's victory leads to further confrontations with Rome.
3. Arthur and his warriors, including Kay, Bedivere, and Gawain, defeat the Roman emperor Lucius Tiberius in Gaul but, as he prepares to march on Rome, Arthur hears that his nephew Mordred—whom he had left in charge of Britain—has married his wife Guinevere and seized the throne. Arthur returns to Britain and defeats and kills Mordred on the river Camblam in Cornwall, but he himself is mortally wounded. He hands the crown to his kinsman Constantine and is taken to the isle of Avalon to be healed of his wounds, never to be seen again.
4. Now, how much of this narrative was Geoffrey's own invention is open to debate. He seems to have borrowed the list of Arthur's twelve battles against the Saxons found in the 9th-century Historia Brittonum, along with the idea that Arthur was still alive after the battle of Camlann from the Annales Cambriae. And Arthur's status as the king of all Britain seems to have been taken from pre-Galfridian traditions of Wales. Finally, Geoffrey borrowed many of the names for Arthur's possessions (like Excalibur), close family (like Uther), and companions (like Gawain) from the pre-Galfridian Welsh tradition. However, while names, key events, and titles may have been borrowed, there have been relatively few modern attempts to challenge the notion that Geoffrey’s book is primarily his own creative work.
5. Well, whatever his sources may have been, the immense popularity of Geoffrey's History cannot be denied. Over 200 manuscript copies of Geoffrey's Latin work are known to have survived, as well as translations into other languages. As a result of this popularity, Geoffrey's book was enormously influential on the later medieval development of the Arthurian legend and the magical and wonderful adventures of Romance tales.
6. Romance is a genre, developing from the mid-14th century, which deals with love or heroic adventures both in prose and verse form. The plots are set in distant times and distant places, remote from everyday life. The supernatural element is present in many medieval romances. Further, chivalric romances are fantastic stories about marvel-filled adventures, often of a knight portrayed as having heroic qualities, who goes on a quest. Chivalric romances put the emphasis on love and courtly manners and are distinguished from other kinds of epic tales in which masculine military heroism predominates.
7. Indeed, the popularity of Geoffrey's Historia gave rise to a significant number of new Arthurian works in continental Europe during the 12th and 13th centuries, particularly in France. Perhaps the most significant effect of this great outpouring of new Arthurian story-telling was on the role of the king himself: much of this 12th-century and later Arthurian literature centers less on Arthur himself than on characters such as Lancelot and Guinevere, Percival, Galahad, Gawain, and Tristan and Iseult. Whereas Arthur is very much at the center of the pre-Galfridian material and Geoffrey's Historia itself, in the post-Galfridian romances he is often sidelined.
8. His character also alters significantly. In both the earliest materials and in Geoffrey, Arthur is a great and ferocious warrior, who laughs as he personally slaughters witches and giants and takes a leading role in all military campaigns, whereas in the continental romances he often becomes the "do-nothing king", whose "inactivity and acquiescence constituted a central flaw in his otherwise ideal society.” Arthur's role in these works is frequently that of a wise, dignified, even-tempered, somewhat bland, and occasionally feeble monarch. Nonetheless, whatever his faults and frailties may be in these romances, his prestige is never—or almost never—compromised by his personal weaknesses ... his authority and glory remain intact.
9. While Arthur and his retinue appear in some of the poems of Marie de France, it was the work of another French poet, Chrétien de Troyes, that had the greatest influence with regard to the development of Arthur's character and legend. Chrétien wrote five Arthurian romances between 1170 and 1190. Erec and Enide and Cligès are tales of courtly love with Arthur's court as their backdrop, demonstrating the shift away from the heroic world of the Welsh and Galfridian Arthur, while Yvain, the Knight of the Lion, features Yvain and Gawain in a supernatural adventure, with Arthur very much on the sidelines and weakened. However, the two most significant developments of the Arthurian legend are: Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart, which introduces Lancelot and his adulterous relationship with Arthur's queen Guinevere, extending and popularizing the recurring theme of Arthur as a cuckold, and Perceval, the Story of the Grail, which introduces the Holy Grail and the character of the Fisher King, with Arthur having a much reduced role.
10. Thus, Chrétien was absolutely instrumental in the development of the Arthurian legend and much of what came after him in terms of the portrayal of Arthur himself and his world. The Perceval poem, although unfinished, was particularly popular, with the quest for the Grail slowly replacing the prominence of Arthur himself in Arthurian legends. Similarly, Lancelot and his cuckolding of Arthur with Guinevere became one of the classic motifs of the Arthurian legend.
11. Chrétien's work even appears to feed back into Welsh Arthurian literature. Particularly significant in this development were the three great Welsh Arthurian romances, which are closely similar to those of Chrétien: Owain, or the Lady of the Fountain is related to Chrétien's Yvain; Geraint and Enid, to Erec and Enide; and Peredur son of Efrawg, to Perceval.
12. Up to around 1200, continental Arthurian romance was expressed primarily through poetry--but after this date the tales began to be told in prose. The most significant of these 13th-century prose romances was the Vulgate Cycle of the Holy Grail, a series of Middle French prose works written in the first half of the 13th century that continued the trend towards reducing the role played by Arthur, through the introduction of Galahad and an expansion of the role of Merlin. It also made Mordred the result of an incestuous relationship between Arthur and his sister Morgause, and established the role of Camelot as the center of Arthur’s court. This series of texts was quickly followed by another Cycle that included the Suite du Merlin that focused more on the quest for the Holy Grail.
13. The development of the medieval Arthurian cycle and the character of the "Arthur of romance" culminated in Le Morte d'Arthur, Thomas Malory's retelling of the entire legend in a single work in English in the late 15th century. Malory based his book on the various previous romance versions, in particular the Vulgate Cycle, and appears to have aimed at creating a comprehensive and authoritative collection of Arthurian stories. Le Morte D'Arthur was one of the earliest printed books in England, published by William Caxton in 1485. As a result, later Arthurian works --including modern versions--are derivative of Malory's.